tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-82509522087644751002024-03-08T15:39:05.720-08:00My Blog Reza Adityarezahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07578664887253379435noreply@blogger.comBlogger2125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8250952208764475100.post-88631053934557203752011-11-23T07:19:00.000-08:002011-11-23T07:19:20.025-08:00Bahsa Pemograman Pragmatics<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 25.0pt;">Pragmatics</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">P</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN;">ragmatik</span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> dalam </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN">bahasa pemrograman</span></span><span lang="IN"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">berhubungan dengan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> <span class="hps"><span lang="IN">kemudahan pelaksanaan</span></span><span lang="IN">, efisiensi<br />
<span class="hps">dalam aplikasi</span>, <span class="hps">dan metodologi</span> <span class="hps">pemrograman</span>.</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Slonneger & Kurtz</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Pragmatik berhubungan dengan kemudahan implementasi dan efisiensi. Dalam hubungannya dengan bahasa pemrograman, seorang programmer harus bisa memastikan efisiensi dalam melakukan peng-coding-an.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><i><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Keywords and phrases: </span></i><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">strict, non-strict, eager evaluation, lazy evaluation, normal-order evaluation, binding time, passing by value, passing by reference, passing by name, passing by value, passing by result, passing by value-result, aliasing.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">Heaps and Pointers</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Memperlakukan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">abstrak</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">prosedur dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">berfungsi sebagai</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">nilai-nilai kelas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">pertama</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">adalah penyebab lain</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">potensi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">menjuntai</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">referensi.</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Watt)</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sebuah variabel heap adalah salah satu yang dapat dibuat dan dihapus setiap saat. Variabel Heap bersifat anonim dan diakses melalui pointer. Heap adalah sebuah blok penyimpanan di mana potongan dialokasikan dan dibebaskan dalam beberapa mannner yang relatif tidak terstruktur.<br />
Awalnya elemen heap dihubungkan bersama-sama dalam beberapa mode untuk membentuk daftar </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ruang kosong</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. Penciptaan sebuah variabel diminta oleh sebuah operasi disebut pengalokasi yang mengembalikan pointer ke </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">head </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">variabel baru dibuat. Untuk mengalokasikan elemen, elemen pertama dalam daftar akan dihapus dari daftar dan pointer untuk itu dikembalikan ke operasi meminta penyimpanan.<br />
Sering ada operasi yang disebut deallocator paksa menghapus variabel </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">head yang di </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">berikan. Ketika suatu unsur adalah deallocated (dibebaskan), itu hanya terkait kembali di kepala daftar gratis-ruang. Jika semua referensi ke variabel tumpukan dihancurkan, variabel tumpukan tidak dapat diakses dan menjadi sampah. Ketika variabel menjadi sampah, ruang memori tidak dapat digunakan oleh variabel lain karena sarana referensi itu harus ada dalam rangka untuk kembali ruang untuk daftar ruang bebas.<br />
Ketika dealokasi berada di bawah kendali programmer, itu adalah potensi sumber masalah. Jika seorang programmer deallocates variabel, setiap pointer ke variabel yang tersisa tumpukan dihapus menjadi referensi menggantung.<br />
Sampah dan menggantung referensi yang berpotensi menyusahkan bagi programmer. Jika sampah menumpuk, penyimpanan yang tersedia secara bertahap dikurangi sampai program mungkin tidak dapat melanjutkan karena kurangnya ruang bebas yang dikenal (ini juga disebut kebocoran memori).</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Jika sebuah program</span></span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> <span class="hps">mencoba</span> <span class="hps">untuk mengubah</span> <span class="hps">melalui</span> <span class="hps">referensi</span> <span class="hps">menggantung</span> <span class="hps">sebuah struktur</span> <span class="hps">yang telah</span> <span class="hps">deallocated</span> <span class="hps">(</span>hancur), <span class="hps">isi dari</span> <span class="hps">sebuah elemen</span> <span class="hps">freespace</span> <span class="hps">dapat dimodifikasi</span>. <span class="hps">Hal ini</span> <span class="hps">dapat menyebabkan</span> <span class="hps">sisa</span> <span class="hps">ruang</span> <span class="hps">bebas</span> <span class="hps">untuk menjadi</span> <span class="hps">sampah atau</span> <span class="hps">sebagian</span> <span class="hps">dari program</span> <span class="hps">untuk menjadi</span> <span class="hps">terkait dengan</span> <span class="hps">ruang bebas</span>. <span class="hps">Ruang</span> <span class="hps">deallocated</span> <span class="hps">bisa</span> <span class="hps">dialokasikan kembali untuk</span> <span class="hps">beberapa struktur</span> <span class="hps">lain yang mengakibatkan</span> <span class="hps">masalah yang sama</span>.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">Dalam hubungannya dengan bahasa pemrograman, seorang programmer harus bisa memastikan efisiensi dalam melakukan peng-coding-an. Dalam bahasa C, programmer diberikan kekuasaan untuk mengalokasikan memori. Sebagai akibatnya, apabila programmer lalai dalam mengontorl variabel-variabel yang dihasilkan dari hasil assignment pointer, maka akan terjadi kebocoran memori. Ini diakibatkan apabila seorang programmer mengcreate sebuah variabel pointer, dan kemudian menghapusnya, informasi tersebut masih ada dalam memori, hanya saja sudah tidak bisa diakses lagi.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Masalah acuan menjuntai bisa dihilangkan. Salah satu solusi adalah untuk membatasi tugas sehingga referensi ke variabel lokal mungkin tidak ditugaskan untuk variabel dengan seumur hidup lagi. Pembatasan ini mungkin memerlukan pemeriksaan runtime dan kadang-kadang membatasi programmer.<br />
Solusi lain adalah untuk menjaga jumlah referensi dengan setiap variabel tumpukan. Integer disebut jumlah referensi yang terkait dengan setiap elemen tumpukan. Jumlah referensi menunjukkan jumlah dari pointer ke elemen yang ada. Awalnya menghitung diatur ke 1. Setiap kali pointer ke elemen yang dibuat jumlah referensi meningkat dan setiap kali pointer ke elemen ini hancur jumlah referensi menurun. Ruangnya tidak deallocated sampai jumlah referensi mencapai nol.<br />
<br />
Metode acuan hasil penghitungan biaya overhead yang cukup besar dalam ruang dan waktu.<br />
Solusi lain adalah untuk menyediakan pengumpulan sampah. Ide dasarnya adalah untuk memungkinkan sampah yang dihasilkan dalam rangka untuk menghindari referensi menggantung. Ketika daftar gratis-ruang kelelahan dan penyimpanan lebih lanjut diperlukan, </span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">perhitungan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">ditangguhkan dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">prosedur</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">khusus yang disebut</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">kolektor</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">sampah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">mulai</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">yang mengidentifikasi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">sampah dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">kembali</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">ke daftar</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">ruang bebas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ada dua tahap untuk pengumpulan sampah menandai fase dan fase mengumpulkan.<br />
l Menandai fase: Fase menandai dimulai di luar tumpukan dengan pointer yang menunjuk ke tumpukan elemen aktif. Rantai pointer diikuti dan setiap elemen tumpukan dalam rantai ditandai untuk menunjukkan bahwa itu adalah aktif. Ketika fase ini selesai elemen tumpukan hanya aktif ditandai sebagai aktif.<br />
l Mengumpulkan fase: Selama tahap mengumpulkan tumpukan dipindai dan setiap elemen yang tidak</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">aktif kembali ke daftar ruang bebas dan bit yang ditandai akan ulang untuk mempersiapkan pengumpulan sampah kemudian.<br />
Ini ruang mungkin tidak dapat digunakan reclamed oleh seorang kolektor sampah. Sebuah variabel tumpukan hidup selama setiap referensi untuk itu ada.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">Coroutines</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Coroutines</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">digunakan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">dalam bahasa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">simulasi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">diskrit dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">untuk beberapa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">masalah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">menyediakan struktur</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">kontrol yang</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">lebih alami dari</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">hirarki</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">biasa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">panggilan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">subprogram</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">.</span></span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><br />
<span class="hps">Coroutines</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dapat dianggap</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sebagai</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">subprogram</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tidak diperlukan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk mengakhiri</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sebelum kembali ke</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">rutinitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Alling</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Pada</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">titik kemudian</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memanggil</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">program</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dapat (</span><span class="atn">Resume</span><span class="longtext">) </span><span class="hps">pelaksanaan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">coroutine</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pada titik</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dari mana</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">eksekusi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">ditangguhkan</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Coroutines</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kemudian</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">muncul sebagai</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">setara dengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">melewati kontrol</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dari satu ke</span><br />
<span class="hps">yang lain</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang diperlukan</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Dari dua</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">coroutines</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">adalah wajar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk memperpanjang</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">ini untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">satu set</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">coroutines</span><span class="longtext">.</span><br />
<span class="hps">Dari</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">deskripsi yang diberikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dari</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">coroutines</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">jelas bahwa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">coroutines</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tidak boleh</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">rekursif</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Hal ini</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memungkinkan kita untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">menggunakan hanya</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">satu record</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">aktivasi untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">coroutine</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">masing-masing dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">alamat</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">setiap record</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">aktivasi dapat</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">statis</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dipertahankan</span><span class="longtext">.</span><br />
<span class="hps">Setiap record</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">aktivasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">diperluas untuk mencakup</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lokasi untuk menyimpan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">CI</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">coroutine</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sesuai.</span><br />
<span class="hps">Hal ini</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">diinisialisasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lokasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">instruksi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pertama dari</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">coroutine</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tersebut</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Ketika</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bertemu</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">coroutine</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">operasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">melanjutkan</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">menyimpan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">alamat</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">instruksi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">berikutnya</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di dalamnya</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">catatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">aktivasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sendiri.</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Alamat</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">CI</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kembali</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">coroutine</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">diperoleh</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dari catatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">aktivasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">coroutine</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dilanjutkan.</span></span><span class="hps"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 19.5pt;">Safety</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Tujuan dari</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">deklarasi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">adalah dua</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">kali lipat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Persyaratan bahwa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">semua nama</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">dinyatakan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">sangat penting untuk</span><span lang="IN"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">menyediakan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">memeriksa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">ejaan.</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Hal ini tidak</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">biasa bagi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">seorang programmer untuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">misspell</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">nama.</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Ketika</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">deklarasi yang</span><span lang="IN"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">tidak diperlukan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">tidak ada cara</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">untuk menentukan apakah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">nama</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">baru atau</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">jika itu adalah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">salah mengeja</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">nama</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">privious</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">.</span></span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><br />
<span class="hps">Tujuan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kedua dari</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">deklarasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">adalah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">membantu</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">algoritma</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memeriksa jenis</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Jenis</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pemeriksa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dapat</span><br />
<span class="hps">menentukan apakah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">jenis</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">variabel</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dimaksudkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sesuai dengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">penggunaan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">variabel.</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Semacam ini</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memeriksa jenis</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">dapat dilakukan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">pada waktu kompilasi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">memungkinkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">generasi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">kode</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">lebih efisien</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">karena jenis</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">run time</span><span lang="IN"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">cek</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">tidak perlu dilakukan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">.</span></span><span lang="IN"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span class="hps"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">memeriksa jenis</span></b></span><span class="longtext"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></b></span><span class="hps"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">-</span></b></span><span class="longtext"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></b></span><span class="hps"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">statis</span></b></span><span class="longtext"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">, dinamis</span></b></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><br />
</span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">impor / ekspor</span></span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><br />
<span class="hps">Deklarasi dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memeriksa jenis</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">keselamatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang kuat</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memfasilitasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dengan menyediakan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">redundansi.</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Ketika</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">programmar</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">harus</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">menentukan jenis</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">setiap</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">entitas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">dan dapat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">menyatakan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">hanya satu</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">entitas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">dengan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">identifier</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">yang diberikan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">dalam</span><span lang="IN"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">diberikan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">lingkup;</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">compiler</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">kemudian hanya</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">memeriksa setiap</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">penggunaan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">masing-masing entitas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">terhadap</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">peraturan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">jenis</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">kaku.</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Dengan</span><span lang="IN"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">overloading</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">atau tipe</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">inferensi,</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">kompiler harus</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">menyimpulkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">informasi yang</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">tidak diberikan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">oleh programmer</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">.</span></span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><br />
<span class="hps">Hal ini</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">rawan kesalahan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">karena</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kesalahan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sedikit</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">radikal</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dapat mempengaruhi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">apa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kompiler</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tersebut</span><span class="longtext">.</span><br />
<span class="hps">Overloading</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan tipe</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">inferensi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kurangnya</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">redundansi</span><span class="longtext">.</span></span><span class="longtext"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span class="hps"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">Perspektif</span></b></span><span class="longtext"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></b></span><span class="hps"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">sejarah</span></b></span><span class="longtext"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></b></span><span class="hps"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">dan Further Reading</span></b></span><span class="hps"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Pragmatik adalah cabang ilmu bahasa yang mempelajari struktur bahasa<br />
secara eksternal, yakni bagaimana satuan kebahasaan itu digunakan dalam<br />
komunikasi. Menurut Leech (1993), pragmatik adalah studi mengenai makna ujaran<br />
dalam situasi tertentu. Sementara Levinson (dalam Siregar 2002) men-<br />
definisikan pragmatik sebagai telaah mengenai relasi antar bahasa dan konteks<br />
yang merupakan dasar bagi suatu catatan atau laporan pemahaman bahasa.<br />
Dengan demikian ia merupakan telaah mengenai kemampuan pemakai bahasa<br />
dalam menghubungkan serta menyerasikan kalimat-kalimat dan konteks<br />
secara tepat.<br />
<br />
Pragmatik dan tindak tutur memandang konteks sebagai pengetahuan<br />
bersama antara pembicara dan pendengar dan pengetahuan tersebut<br />
mengarah pada interpretasi suatu tuturan. Pengetahuan atau konteks tertentu dapat<br />
mengakibatkan manusia mengidentifikasi jenis-jenis tindak tutur yang berbeda.<br />
Berbicara tentang pragmatik di dalam mangupa berarti berbicara<br />
tentang penggunaan perangkat tindak tutur dalam tuturan. Kehadiran perangkat<br />
tindak tutur ini ada yang wajib dan ada pula yang bersifat opsional bergantung<br />
kepada kepentingannya. Searle (dalam Wijana 1969) mengatakan bahwa secara<br />
pragmatis setidak-tidaknya ada tiga jenis tindakan yang dapat diwujudkan oleh<br />
seorang penutur, yaitu tindak lokusi, tindak ilokusi dan tindak perlokusi.Tindak<br />
lokusi adalah tindak tutur yang digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu, tindak<br />
ilokusi adalah tindak yang digunakan selain untuk menyatakan sesuatu juga<br />
digunakan untuk melakukan sesuatu sedangkan tindak perlokusi adalah tindak<br />
tutur yang pengutaraannya dimaksudkan untuk mempengaruhi lawan tutur.<br />
Berkaitan dengan hal ini untuk memahami metafora dalam upacara<br />
mangupa harus terikat dengan konteks. Misalnya dalam masyarakat<br />
Mandailing ditemukan ungkapan metaforis ulos na so ra buruk yang bermakna<br />
adat yang tidak akan pernah punah. Adat itu dilambangkan kepada ulos yang<br />
tidak akan rusak sampai kapanpun.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>rezahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07578664887253379435noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8250952208764475100.post-75525568036823983732011-11-02T05:05:00.000-07:002011-11-02T05:05:18.186-07:00KONSEP DASAR PEMMOGRAMAN<div class="Default" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Program komputer adalah sekumpulan instruksi yang dikenal oleh komputer dan disusun menurut urutan yang logis untuk menyelesaikan suatu masalah. Bahasa pemrograman adalah bahasa yang dapat diterjemahkan menjadi kumpulan perintah-perintah dasar tersebut. Penerjemahan dilakukan oleh program komputer yang disebut kompilator. Bahasa pemgrogram tingkat dasar, sebagai hirarki pertama, disebut juga bahasa generasi pertama, bahasa ini sangat tergantung pada jenis CPU yang dipakai oleh komputer itu. Bahasa ini sangat sulit dipelajari, karena sifatnya yang sangat tergantung pada mesinnya itu 2 (<i>machine dependent</i>). Untuk menguasai bahasa ini, harus dipelajari dan dikuasai teknologi dan arsitektur komputer, matematika diskrit, elektronika, dan lain-lain. Bahasa ini masih menggunakan simbol-simbol yang bersifat <i>mnemonic. </i></span></div><div class="Default"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bahasa pemrograman tingkat tengah, sifatnya sudah lebih mudah daripada bahasa pemrograman tingkat dasar, perintah-perintahnya sudah lebih mudah dibaca sebab sudah menggunakan huruf-huruf. </span></div><div class="Default"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bahasa pemrograman tingkat tinggi adalah bahasa komputer yang sudah mirip dengan bahasa manusia. Perintah-perintahnya sudah dibuat dalam bahasa yang mudah dimengerti manusia, seperti PRINT, WRITE, IF, THEN, ELSE, dan lain-lain. </span></div><div class="Default"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">PEMROGRAMAN DAN BAHASA PEMROGRAMAN </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Pemrograman dapat diklasifikasikan sebagai berikut [Rechenberg]: </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1. Berorientasi prosedur (procedural oriented) </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2. Berorientasi fungsi (functional oriented) </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3. Berorientasi logik (logic oriented) </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">4. Berorientasi obyek (object oriented) </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Masing-masing memiliki kelebihan tersendiri. Kadangkala dalam membangun suatu aplikasi dibutuhkan gabungan metode pemrograman tersebut. Misalnya dalam C++ dan Java (bahasa pemrograman berorientasi obyek), kita masih dapat menemukan tehnik-tehnik pemrograman berorientasi prosedur dalam setiap method/function member dalam obyek-obyeknya. </span></div><div class="Default"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Suatu bahasa pemrograman pada asalnya hanya dapat digunakan dalam satu metode. Pascal mulanya untuk procedural-oriented, Lisp untuk functional-oriented, Smaltalk untuk object-oriented dan lain-lain. Seiring dengan perkembangan tehnologi informasi dan komputer, puluhan bahkan ratusan bahasa pemrograman baru lahir. Masing-masing memiliki keunikan dan kelebihan spesifik. Ada yang khusus untuk jenis komputer tertentu, ada pula yang khusus untuk paradigma pemrograman tertentu.</span></div><div class="Default"><br />
</div><div class="Default"><br />
</div><div class="Default"><br />
</div><div class="Default"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">PRINSIP BAHASA</span></b></div><div class="Default"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Suatu bahasa program harus dirancang untuk memudahkan agar dapat dibaca dan ditulis untuk para pemakai manusianya dan pelaksanaan efisien pada perangkat keras yang tersedia.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Keadaan dapat dibaca dan ditulis dimudahkan oleh prinsip yang berikut.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Prinsip Kesederhanaan</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Bahasa harus didasarkan atas yang paling sedikit</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Prinsip Orthogonal</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Fungsi mandiri harus dikendalikan oleh mekanisme mandiri.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Prinsip Keteraturan</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Satu set object disebut reguler berkenaan dengan kondisi beberapa jika, dan hanya jika, kondisi dapat digunakan untuk masing-masing unsur set.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">P</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">rinsip Sifat Ekstensibilitas</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">(dapat diperpanjang)</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Object baru dari tiap kelas sintaktis mungkin dibangun (digambarkan) dari dasar dan digambarkan membangun dengan suatu cara sistematis.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Prinsip keteraturan dan ekstensibilitas memerlukan konsep dasar bahasa harus diterapkan secara konsisten dan yang bersifat universal.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="Default"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">SINTAKS</span></b></div><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b>Sintaks CSS terdiri dari tiga bagian: pemilih atau selektor (<i>selector</i>), sifat atau properti (<i>property</i>), dan nilai (<i>value</i>). “Selektor” biasanya adalah elemen atau tag HTML yang akan didefinisikan, “properti” adalah atribut yang akan diganti dengan “nilai” tertentu. Properti dan nilai dipisahkan dengan tanda titik dua (<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">:</span>) dan keduanya diapit oleh tanda kurung kurawal (<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">{</span>).<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Jika suatu nilai mengandung spasi, nilai tersebut harus diapit dengan tanda petik (</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">"</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">). Untuk memberikan lebih dari satu properti bagi suatu selektor, pisahkan setiap kombinasi “properti:nilai” dengan tanda titik koma (</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">;</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">). Untuk membuat definisi gaya lebih mudah dibaca, definisi tiap properti dapat dilakukan per baris.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Contoh:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">p { color: black }</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">div { font-family: "sans serif" }</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">pre { text-align:center; color:red; }</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;">blockquote {</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;"> text-align: center;</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;"> color: black;</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10pt;"> font-family: arial</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">DATA </span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 21.3pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Data </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">erupakan bahan yang akan di olah </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">enjadi infor</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">asi sehingga daat digunakan oleh user atau pengguna .</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 21.3pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 21.3pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Tipe data dasar </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">M</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">erupakan tipe data pri</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">itif yang tidak terstruktur yang didefinidikan oleh bahasa pe</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">ogra</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">an .</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Tipe data dasar dibagi 5 :</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 75.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Tipe data nu</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">erik</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 75.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Yaitu tipe data yg disetiap bahasa pe</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">ogra</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">an dapat dipastikan terdapat tipe data nu</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">erik seperti untuk </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">enyi</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">pan data yg berupa angka.</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 75.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 75.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Enu</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">erasi </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 75.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Suatu urutan list dari nilai yg berbeda</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 75.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Boolean </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 75.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Tipe data untuk </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">e</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">presentasikan true atau false</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Tipe data terstruktur </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">M</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">erupakan tipe data ca</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">puran dari berbgai tipe dasar, contohnya : array, reccord, string, list dan file.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Tipe data penunjuk</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Contoh </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">tipe data ini adalah pointer</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Tipe data didefinisikan oleh pe</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">akai </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Tipe data ini disebut Enu</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">erasi</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: -39.0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">M</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">ODEL KO</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">M</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">PUTASI</span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: -39.0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 1.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: 7.1pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"> </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Ada tiga </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">odel dasar ko</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">putasional : Fungsional, Logika, dan I</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">peratif. Sebagai ta</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">bahan terhadap satuan nilai dan operasi yang berhubungan, </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">asing-</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">asing </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">odel ko</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">putasional </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">e</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">punyai satu set operai yang digunakan untuk </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">engga</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">barkan ko</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">putasi .</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 1.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: 7.1pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: -39.0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">DEFINISI SINTAKS DAN SE</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">M</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">ANTIK </span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 39.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 21.3pt 2.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-indent: -39.0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 1.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"> </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Sintaks : Aturan gra</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">atikal atau ko</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">posisi suatu progra</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> yg </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">engatur tata cara penulisan huruf, angka, dan karakter .</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 1.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 14.2pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 1.0cm 92.15pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Se</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">antik : </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">endefinisikan arti dari suatu progra</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> yang benar secara sintaks dari bahasa pe</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">ogra</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">m</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">an tsb. </span></div>rezahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07578664887253379435noreply@blogger.com0